| Abstract: |
The last decade has seen a deluge in publications reporting the extraction of DNA from ancient sources. It is beyond the remit of this paper to discuss the extensive accomplishments in this field although, suffice to say, a current literature search unearths hundreds of papers. Methodology from this area of study has not only affected archaeology, but has impacted upon population genetics, conservation biology, forensic medicine, prenatal diagnosis and medicine. In this paper, we discuss the extraction and analysis of ancient DNA from bone and teeth samples. We cover basic 'cleanroom' procedures and the precautions required to extract authentic ancient DNA. We also review recent extraction procedures, appropriate commercial products and provide techniques and advice to improve polymerase chain reaction (PCR) efficiency. Where possible, we provide internet contacts for the suppliers of consumables and equipment. In addition, we describe a cheap and efficient direct sequencing method that we have found extremely useful for examination of ancient DNA PCR products.
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